Architectural Design Techniques of Urban Buildings in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century

I'm very excited to present a new paper I've written titled:

Architectural Design Techniques of Urban Buildings in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century

This illustrated essay explores specific physical design techniques employed by architects during this golden period of city-building to achieve their remarkable results.

It has just been published by Periodica Polytechnica Architecture (a peer reviewed scientific journal published by the Faculty of Architecture of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics).

[Click HERE to access the full essay in free pdf form]

Urban buildings constructed in historic city centers of Europe and America in the late 19th and early 20th Century demonstrate a remarkable consistency of architectural excellence and harmony which can be observed from the large urban forms down to minute details. 

The comprehensive system of design principles employed by architects of the time in the creation of these buildings has resulted in urban environments that achieve a very high degree of functionality as well as adaptability to the evolving needs of their modern populations.

(Note: For those who are interested in delving even deeper, Section 3 of the essay focuses on the rediscovery of lost classic architectural design instructional texts and contains a recommended reading list). 

Summary Part 5: Articulation of Building Massing - Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson

This week, we continue our series examining the classic book Architectural Composition, 1908, by John Beverley Robinson.

(Here are links to previous posts summarizing Robinson's discussion of fundamental architectural design principles):

1. Unity

2. Individuality and Continuity

3. Similarity

4. Hierarchy and Subordination

   

Today, we explore Robinson's discussion of important and universal principles for creating powerful architectural compositions using clear Articulation of Building Massing. 

To begin, Robinson postulates that:

Building compositions may be comprised of three hierarchical categories of forms: primary masses, secondary masses, and details.

1. Primary masses are the largest forms in a composition.  They are perceivable at a glance as the main body of a building, to which other smaller secondary masses and details may be added.
2. Secondary masses, or appendages, may either project horizontally from primary masses or may project vertically from primary masses.  A secondary mass connecting two primary masses is called a link.
3. After primary / secondary masses and links / appendages, comes a third level of forms: details i.e. doors, windows, chimneys, columns, brackets, arches, panels, cartouches, smaller turrets, and dormers.

Robinson goes on to explain that:

All buildings of character may be categorized into one of a limited number of combinations of single, double and triple primary masses, and associated secondary links and appendages:

Robinson then proceeds to delve more deeply into the important characteristics of these massing variations:

One Single Primary Mass:

A building consisting of a single primary mass possesses unity in the highest degree.  When it is possible to simplify a composition to a single mass, such as the Boston Public Library (below), do not give up the opportunity lightly:

Note: When designing very large buildings of a single primary mass, beware of imposing artificial vertical breaks in the composition if they are reveals of 8 inches or so (or even less) for the sake of visual variety.  The articulation gained is usually outweighed by the loss of unity caused by breaking the horizontal lines and fragmenting the mass.

Two Primary Masses:

Two primary masses connected by a linking form will typically read as a single building form.  The double primary forms must be combined via a visible link, otherwise the resulting duality is troublesome like two doors, exactly alike, placed close together.  The two primary forms must be similar, or discord will result.  The two primary masses must be similar in shape, but need not be similar in size to achieve unity, as seen with the Collegiate Gothic building (below) on the Yale University Campus in New Haven, CT:

Bilateral symmetry of two identical compositions is called “double composition” and requires great care to pull off well.  In order to unify a double composition, a single object, either a secondary mass or a detail, is often placed on the link between the two primary masses, usually at the center, such as porch and dormers of this apartment building (below) in Baldwin Park, FL:

Three Primary Masses:

Examples of compositions of triple primary masses, all the same size and all alike, almost never occur however examples where the central mass differs from the side masses are innumerably common.  Most commonly, the central primary mass is larger than the two flanking primary masses, as seen in the civic building example (below) on Tbilisi, Georgia's scenic Rustaveli Avenue.  Compositions of three primary masses tend to read simultaneously like two separate compositions welded together: one of two masses joined by a link and a single mass with appendages:

In general, the more similar the three masses are in size, the more similar they should be in appearance.  On the other hand, no matter how great may be the difference in size, it is always possible to use a substantially similar treatment (i.e. the Taj Mahal)

Beyond three primary masses, the mind fails to grasp a group of objects as a unit and only perceives plurality.  Groupings of four primary masses tend to coalesce into subgroups of two or three.

Secondary Masses:

Secondary masses must not be randomly applied, but must be composed with careful attention to number, size, shape and dimensions.  The form which is intended to be primary and the form which is intended to be secondary should clearly read as such.  Secondary masses that possess individuality (vertical expression) fit most naturally on primary masses that also possess individuality, like the gabled forms of this academic building example (below) from Michigan State University's campus in East Lansing, MI:

A single secondary mass maximizes a sense of unity just like a single primary mass.  A central classical portico or porch is the most common form of a dominant secondary mass, such as demonstrated by this house (below) on Beaufort, SC's Bay Street:  

When grouping two or three secondary masses together, all masses should be alike (if three masses, the central one can be larger) like the porticos of the Chautauqua Hall of Brotherhood in DeFuniak Springs, FL (below): 

Secondary subordinate masses may also be composed in balanced asymmetry, as seen in the example (below) from Boston's Back Bay.  This is one of the favorite motifs of the Richardsonian Romanesque and Victorian styles:

Secondary masses generally follow the same rules as primary masses.  An exception, three secondary masses of the same shape and size may be freely used.  Four or more equally sized and shaped secondary elements are aesthetically pleasing, especially when evenly spaced.  They can be jarring if unevenly spaced.  Four or more elements express unity through continuity rather than through individuality, as seen in the Collegiate Gothic Buildings (below) on Yale University's Campus:

Details:

Details are minor architectural objects such as windows, door openings, panels, niches, columns, arches, etc.  The rules for the number and composition of details are the same as for secondary masses.  As with secondary masses, a single detail properly placed will often be sufficient to give unity to a whole composition, as in the example (below) from the North End of Boston.  A single primary organizing detail is just as effective if placed asymmetrically or symmetrically:

 

When grouping multiple details, such as columns in a colonnade, avoid changes in spacing.  

Arrangement of details follows the same principles as the arrangement of secondary masses.  Division of a mass into two parts by details gives an impression of continuity.  Division into one or three parts gives an impression of individuality. 

Endlessly creative combinations and variations are possible!

Amazon: Architectural Composition, 1908 (by John Beverley Robinson)

Summary Part 4: Hierarchy and Subordination - Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson

This week continues our series examining the classic book Architectural Composition, 1908 by John Beverley Robinson.  

Here, Robinson discusses the importance of thoughtful Hierarchy and Subordination of building forms in an architectural composition. 

He explains that a clear hierarchy of forms within a building is key to achieving architectural Unity. "When giving to each part of a building its relative importance, subordination should be accentuated to leave no doubt as to the leading motive."  

Robinson provides the following sketch to clarify his point.  In Figure a. the building is subordinated to the large portico.  In Figure b. simply by adjusting relative size of forms, the hierarchy is reversed and now the smaller portico is subordinated to the building.  The same basic building elements, juxtaposed with different relative sizes, result in two very different architectural expressions:

Robinson goes on to describe 3 primary methods of hierarchy and subordination:

1. Difference in height – "This is the most effective and striking dimension by which importance may be added, as a taller building or architectural element will affect that most important of compositional lines, the silhouette".  The central cupola of the Pitkin County Courthouse in Aspen, CO is clearly the building's dominant form and strikes a bold outline against the sky:

2. Relative width – "A wider element will increase in prominence.  Keep in mind that an increase in width must be accompanied by an increase in height of a given motive, or similarity of form will suffer and a conflict between subordination of height and width occurs".  The importance of the central portico of the Chatauqua Hall in DeFuniak Springs, FL is subtly reinforced by being slightly greater in width than the end porticos:

3. Projection of depth – "This typically has very little effect on subordination if elements are otherwise equal in height and width as this causes little or no modification of silhouette.  Projection becomes critical, however, when subordinating and rendering distinct parts of different sorts.  For example, when subordinating a continuous building element to an individual building element, it is useful to have the continuous part set slightly behind the individual part".  The central and end bays of this school building in Montgomery, AL receive prominence with their slight forward projection, even though they share a common cornice line with the main body of the building behind:

Amazon: Architectural Composition, 1908 (by John Beverley Robinson)

Summary Part 3: Similarity - Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson

Today, we continue our examination of the classic book Architectural Composition, 1908 by John Beverley Robinson.  We've previously discussed Robinson's observations about Unity, and Individuality / Continuity.

Robinson continues with the principle of Similarity - creating power in an architectural composition by repetition of a chosen shape or motif.

Robinson observes:

"To achieve unity, similarity of shape should prevail among all parts of a composition from greatest to smallest, from dome to door panel.  Even in a modest work, a line reflecting another in a different part of the composition, whether interior or exterior, will give a pleasing effect which no richness of adornment could produce.  Similarity of forms of different sizes in an architectural composition is analogous to corresponding musical notes of different octaves.  In the Classical and Medieval styles, this similarity of form is carried into the smallest details."  

Robinson notes that "Medieval uses the repetition of spire and pointed arch forms."  This can be seen in the Collegiate Gothic buildings of the Yale University campus designed by James Gamble Rogers (between 1917-1921) in New Haven, CT.  Here, even the forms of the main building masses repeat at slightly different sizes:

Robinson remarks that, by contrast, "Classical architecture uses regular rows of vertical columns contained by the horizontal lines of the stylobate and cornice. Flutings repeat the orderly line of the columns themselves. Each column is thereby itself colonnaded although with concaves rather than convexes. Every enriched molding is a repetition of vertical lines contained between horizontal lines."  The repetition of orderly rows of vertical elements that are  contained between horizontal elements above and below can readily be seen in facade of the Field Museum of Natural History designed by Daniel Burnham (in 1921) in Grant Park - Chicago, IL: 

Robinson observes that "less perfect styles also show repetition of motives throughout.  I.e. Rococo under Louis XV used the double curve in both plan and elevation."

Robinson notes an important design consideration to keep in mind is that "dissimilarity between parts that have substantially the same function is always disagreeable."  

He reinforces that "the effect of a building is improved if all of the openings are of the same sort, all linteled, or all round, or all pointed.  The same sort of line that is used in elevation i.e. curves or semicircles, may as a general rule be used in the plan to good effect.  Curved roof forms, accordingly, appear out of place over rectilinear plan forms."  Similar curves are repeated at different sizes in the various arched windows, dormers and curved corner facade of this grand apartment building along Andrassy Boulevard in Budapest, Hungary:

In closing, Robinson observes that, generally, "pitches of all roofs of a building should be of equal inclination (there are exceptions). Treatment of both main gables and dormer gables should be the same, at least in general impression." This repetition of roof forms can be seen in Grace Hopper Hall, anchoring a new neighborhood within Baldwin Park in Orlando, FL:

Amazon: Architectural Composition, 1908 (by John Beverley Robinson)

Summary Part 2: Individuality and Continuity - Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson

This post continues our several part series summarizing the classic book Architectural Composition, 1908 by John Beverley Robinson.  The previous post discussed the design characteristic that Robinson considered most essential: unity.

Robinson continues his discussion of form by examining the two main sorts of shapes in architectural composition which correspond to opposite sentiments: individual and continuous. 

The Boston Public Library and the Old South Church on Boston's Copley Square are respectively exquisite examples of the expression of continuity and individuality (2009).

Individuality:

Buildings where the height is greater than the width lend themselves to individual treatment.  They command attention and stand out as focal.  In the absence of concentration, there is no individuality.  Pyramidal and pointed forms generally express the most striking individuality. Pyramids possess individuality because all lines trend to a single point.  After the pyramid, the tower has the most individuality.

The vertical treatment and tower of this Art Deco building in San Antonio, TX express individuality (2008). 

Continuity:

Unity doesn't require individuality; it can be achieved with continuity.  Buildings in which width is greater than height lend themselves to continuous treatment.  Buildings whose primary expression is continuity tend to recede and blend into the urban fabric. 

The even cornice line and horizontal treatment of these terraced houses in London's Belgravia neighborhood express continuity (2005).

Design Considerations When Expressing Individuality and Continuity:

Stronger horizontal lines should be used on a wide building to emphasize continuity.  Stronger vertical lines should be used on a taller, slender building to emphasize individuality.  (This can be reversed, but requires a great deal of skill to pull off).  It is difficult to gracefully combine a vertical mass in a horizontal building without creating a feeling of discord.  By utilizing either a horizontal or a vertical treatment for the entire composition, unity can be achieved between disparate elements.

The individual treatment of St Stephen's Basilica contrasts with the continuous treatment of the framing buildings to terminate the vista down Zrinyi Street in Budapest, Hungary (2008)

Powerful urban compositions can be created by skillfully utilizing both individual and continuous buildings. For any true aesthetic judgment of the productions of architecture and urbanism, we must judge them as we do a picture.  Buildings must be judged in the context of their surroundings.  Buildings expressing continuity and horizontality can be used to form a serene backdrop or frame.  Striking results can be obtained by contrasting this placid backdrop with a focal building expressing individuality and verticality.  This arrangement is seen, for example, in a town whose otherwise plain silhouette is pierced by the steeple of a church.  Any ordinary group of heterogeneous parts can be pulled together if one of them can be arranged as a tower around which the rest cluster.

Mont Saint-Michel in Normandy, France is a classic example where a single dominant vertical form expressing individuality is used to organize a grouping of disparate buildings into an expression of sublime unity.  (Photo by David Iliff. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0)

Amazon: Architectural Composition (1908, by John Beverley Robinson)

Summary Part 1: Unity - Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson

As I mentioned in my previous post, this is the first in a several part series summarizing the classic book Architectural Composition, 1908 by John Beverley Robinson.  This wonderful book is a treasure trove of design principles written during the architectural zenith that occurred at the turn of the last century.  These design principles are quite universal as they grow from the way humans naturally perceive and process the built environment through their senses.  These design principles are therefore as useful for us today as they were in Robinson's own time.

Robinson begins his discussion with the design characteristic he considers most essential: unity. 

Robinson defines, "in all works of fine art there is one fundamental quality which from antiquity has been recognized as essential.  This quality is unity."  Great architecture provides a sense of clarity, harmony and legibility.  Architecture that embodies these traits, and that eliminates discord, is said to possess unity. 

Robinson explains, "one of the chief sources of unity in the arts of design, including architecture, lies in the placement and arrangement of parts, by which objects otherwise unrelated are so placed that the mind loses sight of them as separate objects, and notes only the combination as a single whole."  In the same way that a friend’s face is more than just an assortment of eyes, nose, mouth and ears, a collection of columns and moldings, if arranged properly, becomes a portico.  The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Robinson illustrates, "a number of lines taken at random and laid in no particular order, cannot impress the mind otherwise than as a multitude of objects (Fig. I, a).  Placed thus (b), radiating from the centre, the mind regards the combination as a single star or flower, and forgets to enumerate its parts at all.  So such forms as these (c) remain isolated individuals until they are combined in a honeysuckle (d).  Another source of unity is the intrinsic power of certian forms when properly placed.  Thus, in an enriched moulding the forms of the enrichment acquire unity merely by their arrangement in a straight line (e), just as in (b) unity was given by arrangement in a circle.  The addition of horizontal straight lines on each side, as at (f), at once gives a complete union of parts, so that an observer, if asked what he saw in (f) would answer, a border, or an ornamental band, and not, ten ovals, eleven dashes, and two lines."

"So fundamental is this quality of unity that scarcely any other is needed for excellence in a work of art.  If we can succeed in producing something in which no part seems to be extraneous [or arbitrarily stuck on], we may be confident that we have done a fairly good thing.  If, in addition, every part is exactly suited to its place in shape, size, and relative dimensions, the result will be not far from perfection."

Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia 2008

"A number of tools are available to the designer in pursuit of unity...  For example, straight lines to give unity are used constantly in architecture in the horizontal moldings.  These long uninterrupted horizontal lines visually hold vertical elements like columns in place and keep them from appearing ready to march away...  A firm base line does this, and a cornice does it even more.  Think pictorially primarily, structurally secondarily...  The structural reason for horizontal lines is not important, other than that nothing should shock the judgment with illusion."

Robinson continues his discussion with important compositional principles that can be applied to imbue an architectural design with character, while maintaining a strong sense of unity.  

We'll explore these over the next few posts...

Amazon: Architectural Composition (1908, by John Beverley Robinson)

Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson

During recent trips to historic cities in Europe and America, I have grown increasingly amazed at the level of consistent design proficiency demonstrated in the historic architecture.  The astoundingly sensitive attention to architectural proportion and detail is such that these cities (often built as recently as the early 1900s) sometimes appear to have been conceived by a species other than our own!

Vienna, Austria 2007

At the turn of the last century, traditional architecture reached a zenith.  The classical art of architectural composition, revived during the Renaissance, was refined through the efforts of many talented architects and through the numerous ateliers and schools of design that orbited the great Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris (1648-1968).  The Ecole des Beaux Arts is today often remembered for grand and ornate buildings, but upon closer inspection, its practitioners demonstrated equal proficiency at the design of beautifully proportioned and modest structures with quite reserved details.  

Great effort was made to teach these principles of architectural composition to new generations of designers in order to keep this noble tradition alive. This period saw the publication of many wonderful texts about the art of architectural composition.  These books, which detail the process used to create the astoundingly beautiful architecture of this period, unfortunately fell largely into disuse and were forgotten during the radical cultural shifts and experimentation that occurred during the Modernist era of the early and mid 1900s.  Luckily, efforts to digitize our literary heritage, such as the Google Books Library Project, are making these tremendously valuable and useful volumes easily available once again!

One such book worth reading is Architectural Composition by John Beverley Robinson, first published in 1908.  The book is subtitled "An Attempt to Order and Phrase Ideas Which Hitherto Have Only Been Felt by the Instinctive Taste of Designers" and attempts to articulate universal principles of architectural composition, regardless of style.  Its words are every bit as applicable to the design of urban buildings today as they were during Robinson's own time.  Over the next several posts I'll summarize this wonderful book's primary points. 

Amazon: Architectural Composition (1908, by John Beverley Robinson)